Abstract
The increasing use of onshore wind energy is leading to an increased deployment of wind turbines in structurally rich habitats such as forests. Forest-affiliated bats, in turn, are at risk of colliding with the rotor blades. Due to the legal protection of bats in Europe, it is imperative to restrict the operation of wind turbines to periods of low bat activity to avoid collisions. However, bats have also been observed to avoid wind turbines over several hundred meters distance, indicating a displacement that cannot solely be explained by modifications to the habitat. This avoidance suggests a displacement of bats by indirect factors related to wind turbine operation, e.g., wake turbulences and noise emissions. Therefore, we investigated whether the activity of forest- affiliated bats is influenced by operation mode (on/off) under variable wind conditions along transects from 80 to 450 m distance to wind turbines. We divided recordings by foraging guild, i. e., either narrow-space (Myotis, Plecotus), edge-space (Pipistrellus, Barbastella), or open-space foraging bats (Nyctalus, Eptesicus, Vespertilio), and analyzed the effects of wind turbine operation and wind speed on the recorded bat guild activity with mixed effects models. The acoustic activity of narrow-space foraging bats decreased by 77% with increasing wind speed when wind turbines were operating, while bat activity remained unaffected by wind speed when turbines were not operating. This was neither observed for open-space foraging bats nor for edge-space foraging bats, and neither wind turbine operation nor wind speed (ranging between 0 – 4 m/s at 10 m height above ground) were found to affect bat activity when considered alone. Wind turbine noise emissions are known to increase with rotor speed and consequently, wind speed, thus presenting a likely explanation for the interactive negative effect of turbine operation and wind speed specifically on noise-sensitive narrow-space foraging bats. To understand potential ecological long-term consequences for bat populations in forest areas with wind turbines and to design effective conservation measures, future research should focus on disentangling the effects of different disturbances related to turbine operation.