Abstract
Despite the trade-offs between renewable energy development, land use, humans, and wildlife, wind and solar development continues to transform the western US into a green energy landscape. While renewable energy reduces carbon emissions and reliance on fossil fuels, many studies have emerged on the associated ecological and social impacts of this technology. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the nexus between wildlife conservation and energy development in the western US since 2010. We revisit pertinent ecological concepts presented in earlier reviews to assess how far the field has progressed in mitigating negative effects. Specifically, we examine: i) recent trends in the literature on how wind and solar energy development impact wildlife in the US, ii) how siting and design of development may maximize energy benefits while minimizing negative effects on wildlife, iii) the availability and benefits of before-after control-impact studies, and ultimately iv) how impacts of renewable energy development on wildlife may be mitigated. We also provide case studies on the Desert Tortoise and Greater sage-grouse, two conservation-reliant and umbrella species in the western US, to highlight efforts to mitigate the effects of solar and wind energy development, respectively. We recognize that many other species are affected by renewable energy development, but desert tortoises and sage-grouse are representative of the conflicts that need to be addressed. Our review concludes that mitigation can be improved via use of spatial decision support tools, applying novel wildlife deterrence and detection systems developed for existing installed facilities, and incorporating impact studies that provide managers with conservation metrics for evaluating different future development land-use scenarios.