Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Oil and gas platforms as artificial substrates for epibenthic North Sea fauna: Effects of location and depth Schutter, M., Dorenbosch, M., Driessen, F., Lengkeek, W., Bos, O., Coolen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates
Impacts to Wildlife of Wind Energy Siting and Operation in the United States Allison, T., Diffendorfer, J., Baerwald, E., Beston, J., Drake, D., Hale, A., Hein, C., Huso, M., Loss, S., Lovich, J., Strickland, M., Williams, K., Winder, V. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds
Endangered Atlantic Sturgeon in the New York Wind Energy Area: implications of future development in an offshore wind energy site Ingram, E., Cerrato, R., Dunton, K., Frisk, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Demersal Fish
The Dynamic Ocean: Offshore Wind Energy and Other Activities in the New York Bight New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions, Climate Change, Navigation
The consequences of seabird habitat loss from offshore wind turbines, version 2 van Kooten, T., Soudijn, F., Tulp, I., Chen, C., Benden, D., Leopold, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
PHAROS4MPAs: A Review of Solutions to Avoid and Mitigate Environmental Impacts of Offshore Windfarms Defingou, M., Bils, F., Horchler, B., Liesenjohann, T., Nehls, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Hornsea Project Two Offshore Wind Farm Decommissioning Programme Ørsted Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Low genetic connectivity in a fouling amphipod among man-made structures in the southern North Sea Luttikhuizen, P., Beermann, J., Crooijmans, R., Jak, R., Coolen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Benthic Monitoring During Wind Turbine Installation and Operation at the Block Island Wind Farm, Rhode Island – Year 2 Bartley, M., English, P., King, J., Khan, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Wildlife and Wind Farms - Conflicts and Solutions, Volume 3. Offshore: Potential Effects Perrow, M. Book Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Upscaling positive effects of scour protection in offshore wind farms Coolen, J., Lengkeek, W., van der Have, T., Bittner, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Assessment of system effects of large-scale implementation of offshore wind in the southern North Sea Boon, A., Caires, S., Wijnant, I., Verzijlbergh, R., Zijl, M., Schouten, J., Muis, S., van Kessel, T., van Duren, L., van Kooten, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment
Documenting fish response to seismic surveying and establishing a baseline soundscape for reefs in Onslow Bay, North Carolina Paxton, A., Voss, C., Peterson, C., Taylor, J., Ebert, E., Degan, B., Nowacek, D., Dale, J., Cole, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates
Benthic production and energy export from man-made structures to softbottoms: does it matter? Dannheim, J., Birchenough, S., Beermann, J., Garcia, C., Coolen, J., De Mesel, I., Degraer, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Simulation of Composite Suction Foundation to Topography Change Lin, S., Wang, H., Chiang, Y., Fang, H., Hsiao, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Cumulative Adverse Effects of Offshore Wind Energy Development on Wildlife [Thesis] Goodale, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
The Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Marine Spatial Planning and Marine Renewables: Linking Concepts for Implementation. A Case Study from Scotland MacDonald, A. Thesis Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Benthic biodiversity on old platforms, young wind farms, and rocky reefs Coolen, J., van der Weide, B., Cuperus, J., Blomberg, M., Van Moorsel, G., Faasse, M., Bos, O., Degraer, S., Lindeboom, H., Norkko, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Environmental benefits of leaving offshore infrastructure in the ocean Fowler, A., Jørgensen, A., Svendsen, J., Macreadie, P., Jones, D., Boon, A., Booth, D., Brabant, R., Callahan, E., Claisse, J., Dahlgren, T., Degraer, S., Dokken, Q., Gill, A., Johns, D., Leewis, R., Lindeboom, H., Linden, O., May, R., Murk, A., Ottersen, G., Schroeder, D., Shastri, S., Teilmann, J., Todd, V., Van Hoey, G., Vanaverbeke, J., Coolen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
The large-scale impact of offshore wind farm structures on pelagic primary productivity in the southern North Sea Slavik, K., Lemmen, C., Zhang, W., Kerimoglu, O., Klingbeil, K., Wirtz, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates
Marine Scotland Review of Approaches and Costs of Decommissioning Offshore Wind Installations Public Report Marine Scotland Science Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Effect of an Offshore Wind Farm on the Viviparous Eelpout: Biometrics, Brood Development and Population Studies in Lillgrund, Sweden Langhamer, O., Dahlgren, T., Rosenqvist, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
RECON: Reef effect structures in the North Sea, islands or connections? Summary Report Coolen, J., van der Weide, B., Cuperus, J., Luttikhuizen, P., Schutter, M., Dorenbosch, M., Driessen, F., Lengkeek, W., Blomberg, M., Van Moorsel, G., Faasse, M., Bos, O., Dias, I., Spierings, M., Glorius, S., Becking, L., Schol, T., Crooijmans, R., Boon, A., van Pelt, H., Kleissen, F., Gerla, D., Jak, R., Degraer, S., Lindeboom, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Assessing and Managing Effect Spheres of Influence Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B., Vigin, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Estimating flight heights of seabirds using optical rangefinders and GPS data loggers: a methodological comparison Borkenhagen, K., Corman, A., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
New York State Offshore Wind Master Plan: Fish and Fisheries Study Ecology and Environment, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Distribution and abundance of cetaceans in a wind energy development area offshore of Massachusetts and Rhode Island Stone, K., Leiter, S., Kenney, R., Wikgren, B., Thompson, J., Taylor, J., Kraus, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Changes in Fish Communities on a Small Spatial Scale, an Effect of Increased Habitat Complexity by an Offshore Wind Farm van Hal, R., Griffioen, A., van Keeken, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Recreational Use of Offshore Wind Farms: Experiences and Opinions of Sea Anglers in the UK Hooper, T., Hattam, C., Austen, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Assessing larval connectivity for marine spatial planning in the Adriatic Bray, L., Kassis, D., Hall-Spencer, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Observing Cable Laying and Particle Settlement During the Construction of the Block Island Wind Farm James, E., Smith, K., Gallien, D., Khan, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Unforeseen Responses of a Breeding Seabird to the Construction of an Offshore Wind Farm Harwood, A., Perrow, M., Berridge, R., Tomlinson, M., Skeate, E. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Avoidance Seabirds, Birds
Effects Matrix for Evaluating Potential Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Development on U.S. Atlantic Coastal Habitats Latham, P., Fiore, W., Bauman, M., Weaver, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Human Dimensions
Mobile Demersal Megafauna at Common Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations in the German Bight (North Sea) Two Years after Deployment - Increased Production Rate of Cancer pagurus Krone, R., Dederer, G., Kanstinger, P., Krämer, P., Schneider, C., Schmalenbach, I. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Lake Erie Monitoring Plan for the Offshore Wind Project: Icebreaker Wind LimnoTech Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Fish
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: a Continued move towards Integration and Quantification Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B., Vigin, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment
Benthic and Fish Aggregation Inside an Offshore Wind Farm: Which Effects on the Trophic Web Functioning? Raoux, A., Tecchio, S., Pezy, J., Lassalle, G., Degraer, S., Wilhelmsson, D., Cachera, M., Ernande, B., Guen, C., Haraldsson, M., Grangeré, K., Le Loc'h, F., Dauvin, J., Niquil, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates
Bat activity during autumn relates to atmospheric conditions: implications for coastal wind energy development Smith, A., McWilliams, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats
Co-location of passive gear fisheries in offshore wind farms in the German EEZ of the North Sea: A first socio-economic scoping Stelzenmüller, V., Diekmann, R., Bastardie, F., Schulze, T., Berkenhagen, J., Kloppmann, M., Krause, G., Pogoda, B., Buck, B., Kraus, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore wind energy ecological programme (Wozep) Monitoring and research programme 2017-2021 WOZEP project team Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
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