Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Meteorological aspects of offshore wind energy: Observations from the Vindeby wind farm Barthelmie, R., Courtney, M., Højstrup, J., Larsen, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment
Effects on Birds of an Offshore Wind Park at Horns Rev: Environmental Impact Assessment Noer, H., Christensen, T., Clausager, I., Petersen, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors, Seabirds, Waterfowl, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Effects of Marine Windfarms on the Distribution of Fish, Shellfish and Marine Mammals in the Horns Rev Area Hoffmann, E., Astrup, J., Larsen, F., Munch-Petersen, S., Støttrup, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change, EMF, Avoidance, Attraction Pinnipeds, Marine Mammals, Invertebrates, Fish
Assessment of the Effects of Offshore Wind in Birds Percival, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Statement GE Wind Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Predicting the Displacement of Common Scoter Melanitta nigra from Benthic Feeding Areas Due to Offshore Windfarms Kaiser, M., Elliott, A., Galanidi, M., Ivor, E., Rees, S., Caldow, R., Stillman, R., Sutherland, W., Showler, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Postdevelopment Experiments to Detect Anthropogenic Disturbances: The Case of Sea Ducks and Wind Parks Guillemette, M., Larsen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Waterfowl, Birds
Burbo Offshore Wind Farm Volume 2: ES Biological Environment The University of Liverpool Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Invertebrates, Fish
Birds and Offshore Wind Farms: A Hot Topic in Marine Ecology Exo, K., Hüppop, O., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Onshore Environmental Impact Statement for Lincs, Docking Shoal, and Race Bank OSW Farms Centrica Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Investigations of Birds During Construction and Operation of Nysted Offshore Wind Farm at Rødsand Kahlert, J., Petersen, I., Fox, A., Desholm, M., Clausager, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Birds
Infauna Monitoring Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm: Annual Status Report 2003 Bech, M., Leonhard, S., Pedersen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Biology and Video Surveys of North Hoyle Wind Turbines 11th-13th August 2004 Bunker, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Advancing Migratory Bird Conservation and Management by Using Radar: An Interagency Collaboration Ruth, J., Barrow, W., Sojda,R., Dawson, D., Diehl, R., Manville, A., Green, M., Krueper, D., Johnston, S. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Human Dimensions
Inshore-Offshore Comparison of Parasite Infestation in Mytilus edulis: Implications for Open Ocean Aquaculture Buck, B., Thieltges, D., Walter, U., Nehls, G., Rosenthal, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Surveys of Hard Bottom Communities on Foundations in Nysted Offshore Wind Farm and Schönheiders Pulle in 2004 Birklund, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Scroby Sands Seal Monitoring: Analysis of the 2005 Post-Construction Aerial Surveys Skeate, E., Perrow, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Pinnipeds, Marine Mammals
Impact of Windfarm OWEZ on the Local Macrobenthos Community Daan, R., Mulder, M., Bergman, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Final Results of Bird Studies at the Offshore Wind Farms at Nysted and Horns Rev, Denmark Petersen, I., Christensen, T., Kahlert, J., Desholm, M., Fox, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Impacts of Offshore Wind Farm Construction on Harbour Porpoises: Acoustic Monitoring of Echolocation Activity using Porpoise Detectors (T-PODs) Carstensen, J., Henriksen, O., Teilmann, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
The Influence Of Offshore Windpower On Demersal Fish Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T., Öhman, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Offshore Windmill Farms: Threats to or Possibilities for the Marine Environment Petersen, J., Malm, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
The Development and Use of Individuals-Based Models to Predict the Effects of Habitat Loss and Disturbance on Waders and Waterfowl West, A., Caldow, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Birds
Information Needs to Support Environmental Impact Assessments of the Effects of European Marine Offshore Wind Farms on Birds Fox, A., Desholm, M., Kahlert, J., Christensen, T., Petersen, I. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Hydro-Acoustic Monitoring of Fish Communities at Offshore Wind Farms Hvidt, C., Leonhard, S., Klaustrup, M., Pedersen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Pelagic Fish
Benthic Communities at Horns Rev Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm: Final Report Vattenfall Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Harbour Seals at Horns Reef Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Tougaard, J., Tougaard, S., Jensen, R., Jensen, T., Teilmann, J., Adelung, D., Liebsch, N., Müller, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Use of Aerial Surveys to Detect Bird Displacement by Offshore Windfarms Maclean, I., Skov, H., Rehfisch, M., Piper, W. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Summary on Seal Monitoring 1999-2005 around Nysted and Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farms Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J., Dietz, R., Tougaard, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Pinnipeds, Marine Mammals
Summary on Harbour Porpoise Monitoring 1999-2006 around Nysted and Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farms Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Changes in Bird Habitat Utilisation around the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Farm, with Particular Emphasis on Common Scoter Petersen, I., Fox, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Seabirds, Birds
Worldwide Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Alternative Energy Uses on the Outer Continental Shelf Michel, J., Dunagan, H., Boring, C., Healy, E., Evans, W., Dean, J., McGillis, A., Hain, J. Report Wind Energy, Wave, OTEC, Fixed Offshore Wind, Ocean Current, Marine Energy Habitat Change
Offshore Wind Farms: Their Impacts, and Potential Habitat Gains as Artificial Reefs, in Particular for Fish Wilson, J. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Review of the Reef Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Structures and their Potential for Enhancement and Mitigation UK Department for Business Innovation & Skills (BIS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Populationsdynamik von kommerziell genutzten Fischarten in (durch Offshore- Windkraftanlagen) veränderter Ökosystemstruktur Diembeck, D. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Review of Cabling Techniques and Environmental Effects Applicable to the Offshore Wind Farm Industry UK Department for Business Innovation & Skills (BIS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Ecological Risk as a Tool for Evaluating the Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Construction in the North Sea Nunneri, C., Lenhart, J., Burkhard, B., Windhorst, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Effect Studies Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee: Progress Report on Fluxes and Behaviour of Flying Birds Krijgsveld, K., Fijn, R., Heunks, C., van Horssen, P., de Fouw, J., Collier, M., Poot, M., Meesters, E., Dirksen, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds
Avian Issues for Offshore Wind Development Allison, T., Jedrey, E., Perkins, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm Food Basis for Common Scoter Skov, H., Durinck, J., Erichsen, A., Kloster, R., Møhlenberg, F., Leonhard, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
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