Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Wildlife and Wind Farms - Conflicts and Solutions, Volume 3. Offshore: Potential Effects Perrow, M. Book Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Assessing the Impact of Windfarms in Subtidal, Exposed Marine Areas Dahlgren, T., Schläppy, M., Saskov, A., Andersson, M., Rzhanov, Y., Fer, I. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Ecosystem Processes
Intervisibility Analysis of an Offshore Wind Farm Using GIS Tools Errico, A., Guastaferro, F., Oliviero, C., Santamaria, R. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
Integrating Social and Ecological Research on the Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in North America ten Brink, T., Dalton, T., Livermore, J. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Toward an Ecosystem Approach of Marine Renewable Energy: The Case of the Offshore Wind Farm of Courseulles-sur-Mer in the Bay of Seine Niquil, N., Raoux, A., Haraldsson, M., Araignous, E., Halouani, G., Leroy, B., Safi, G., Noguès, Q., Grangeré, K., Dauvin, J., Riera, F., Mazé, C., Le Loc’h, F., Ching Villanueva, M., Hattab, T., Bourdaud, P., Champagnat, J., Ben Rais Lasram, F. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Unforeseen Responses of a Breeding Seabird to the Construction of an Offshore Wind Farm Harwood, A., Perrow, M., Berridge, R., Tomlinson, M., Skeate, E. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Avoidance Seabirds, Birds
The Added Value of 'Small-Scale' Monitoring of the Soft-Sediment Endobenthos around Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Coates, D., Vanaverbeke, M., Magda, V. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Invertebrates
The Development of Benthic Communities on Hard Substrates within OWEZ, the First Dutch Offshore Wind Farm Noordzee Wind Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Mobile Autonomous Platforms for Passive-Acoustic Monitoring of High-frequency Klinck, H., Fregosi, S., Matsumoto, H., Turpin, A., Mellinger, D., Erofeev, A., Barth, J., Shearman, R., Jafarmardar, K., Stelzer, R. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Mapping of Benthic Habitats at Marine Renewable Energy Sites Using Multibeam Echosounder and Sediment Profile Imaging Technologies Revelas, E., Sackmann, B., Maher, N., Jones, C. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Farms and their Impact on Fish Abundance and Community Structure Stenberg, C., Dinesen, G., van Deurs, M., Berg, C., Mosegaard, H., Leonhard, S., Groome, T., Støttrup, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus Migration in Relation to Offshore Wind Farms Griffin, L., Rees, E., Hughes, B. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Benthic production and energy export from man-made structures to softbottoms: does it matter? Dannheim, J., Birchenough, S., Beermann, J., Garcia, C., Coolen, J., De Mesel, I., Degraer, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Proceedings of the Wind-Wildlife Research Meeting IX PNWWRM IX Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds
Marine Life Observation using Classification Algorithms on Ocean Surface Photographs Maussang, F., Guelton, L., Garello, R., Chevallier, A. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Marine Mammals
New insights into the influence of turbines on the behaviour of migrant birds: implications for predicting impacts of offshore wind developments on wildlife Willmott, J., Forcey, G., Vukovich, M. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Birds
Simulation of Composite Suction Foundation to Topography Change Lin, S., Wang, H., Chiang, Y., Fang, H., Hsiao, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Negative Long Term Effects on Harbour Porpoises from a Large Scale Offshore Wind Farm in the Baltic - Evidence of Slow Recovery Teilmann, J., Carstensen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Habitat Engineering by Decadal-Scale Bioturbation around Shipwrecks on the Great Barrier Reef Mid-Shelf Stieglitz, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Distribution and abundance of cetaceans in a wind energy development area offshore of Massachusetts and Rhode Island Stone, K., Leiter, S., Kenney, R., Wikgren, B., Thompson, J., Taylor, J., Kraus, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
The Nature Of Scour Development And Scour Protection At Offshore Windfarm Foundations Whitehouse, R., Harris, J., Sutherland, J., Rees, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Similar Diversity-Disturbance Responses to Different Physical Impacts: Three Cases of Small-Scale Biodiversity Increase in the Belgian Part of the North Sea De Backer, A., Van Hoey, G., Coates, D., Vanaverbeke, J., Hostens, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Environmental risk evaluation system—an approach to ranking risk of ocean energy development on coastal and estuarine environments Copping, A., Hanna, L., Van Cleve, B., Blake, K., Anderson, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Offshore Wind Energy and Marine Biodiversity in the North Sea: Life Cycle Impact Assessment for Benthic Communities Li, C., Coolen, J., Scherer, L., Mogollón, J., Braeckman, U., Vanaverbeke, J., Tukker, A., Steubing, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment
Ecosystem Based Modeling and Indication of Ecological Integrity in the German North Sea - Case Study Offshore Wind Parks Burkhard, B., Opitz, S., Lenhart, H., Ahrendt, K., Garthe, S., Mendel, B., Windhorst, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
A Sustainability Index of Potential Co-Location of Offshore Wind Farms and Open Water Aquaculture Benassai, G., Mariani, P., Stenberg, C., Christoffersen, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions
Benthic and Fish Aggregation Inside an Offshore Wind Farm: Which Effects on the Trophic Web Functioning? Raoux, A., Tecchio, S., Pezy, J., Lassalle, G., Degraer, S., Wilhelmsson, D., Cachera, M., Ernande, B., Guen, C., Haraldsson, M., Grangeré, K., Le Loc'h, F., Dauvin, J., Niquil, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates
Using Artificial-Reef Knowledge to Enhance the Ecological Function of Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations: Implications for Fish Abundance and Diversity Glarou, M., Zrust, M., Svendsen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish
Reconciling climate action with the need for biodiversity protection, restoration and rehabilitation Gorman, C., Torsney, A., Gaughran, A., McKeon, C., Farrell, C., White, C., Donohue, I., Stout, J., Buckley, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Climate Change, Legal & Policy
Co-location of passive gear fisheries in offshore wind farms in the German EEZ of the North Sea: A first socio-economic scoping Stelzenmüller, V., Diekmann, R., Bastardie, F., Schulze, T., Berkenhagen, J., Kloppmann, M., Krause, G., Pogoda, B., Buck, B., Kraus, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Considerations for Offshore Wind Energy Development Effects on Fish and Fisheries in the United States: A Review of Existing Studies, New Efforts, and Opportunities for Innovation Perry, R., Heyman, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Unravelling the ecological impacts of large-scale offshore wind farms in the Mediterranean Sea Lloret, J., Turiel, A., Solé, J., Berdalet, E., Sabatés, A., Olivares, A., Gili, J., Vila-Subirós, J., Hardy, P-Y., Sardá, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Recreation & Tourism
Data on benthic species assemblages and seafloor sediment characteristics in an offshore windfarm in the southeastern North Sea Teschke, K., Gusky, M., Gutow, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
The Habitat-Creation Potential of Offshore Wind Farms Elliott, M., Wilson, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Inshore-Offshore Comparison of Parasite Infestation in Mytilus edulis: Implications for Open Ocean Aquaculture Buck, B., Thieltges, D., Walter, U., Nehls, G., Rosenthal, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Environmental impacts of offshore wind installation, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning activities: A case study of Brazil Hernández Carrascal, O., Shadman, M., Amiri, M., Silva, C., Estefen, S., La Rovere, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Windfarm Footprint of Sediment Organic Matter Mineralization Processes De Borger, E., Ivanov, E., Capet, A., Braeckman, U., Vanaverbeke, J., Grégoire, M., Soetaert, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Invertebrates
Evidence that offshore wind farms might affect marine sediment quality and microbial communities Wang, T., Ru, X., Deng, B., Zhang, C., Wang, X., Yang, B., Zhang, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
An Integrated Visual Impact Assessment Model for Offshore Windfarm Development Depellegrin, D., Blažauskas, N., Egarter-Vigl, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
Changes in Fish Communities on a Small Spatial Scale, an Effect of Increased Habitat Complexity by an Offshore Wind Farm van Hal, R., Griffioen, A., van Keeken, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
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