Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Impact-Producing Factors in the Offshore Wind Cumulative Impacts Scenario on the South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Environmental Justice, Fisheries, Navigation, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
A comprehensive review on scour and scour protections for complex bottom-fixed offshore and marine renewable energy foundations Chambel, J., Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Miranda, F., Bento, A., Taveira-Pinto, F., Lomonaco, P. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
A Further Review of Sediment Monitoring Data Carroll, B., Cooper, B., Dewey, N., Whitehead, P., Dolphin, T., Rees, J., Judd, A., Whitehouse, R., Harris, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
A risk-based method to prioritize cumulative impacts assessment on marine biodiversity and research policy for offshore wind farms in France Brignon, J., Lejart, M., Nexer, M., Michel, S., Quentric, A., Theibaud, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
A spatial food web model to investigate potential spillover effects of a fishery closure in an offshore wind farm Halouani, G., Villanueva, C-M., Raoux, A., Dauvin, J., Lasram, F., Foucher, E., Loc'h, F., Safi, G., Araignous, E., Robin, J., Niquil, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
A Sustainability Index of Potential Co-Location of Offshore Wind Farms and Open Water Aquaculture Benassai, G., Mariani, P., Stenberg, C., Christoffersen, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions
A synthesis review of nature positive approaches and coexistence in the offshore wind industry Pardo, J., Aune, M., Harman, C., Walday, M., Skjellum, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
A wind of change for soft-sediment infauna within operational offshore windfarms Lefaible, N., Braeckman, U., Degraer, S., Vanaverbeke, J., Moens, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Adapting Offshore Wind Power Foundations to Local Environment Hammar, L., Andersson, S., Rosenberg, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Physical Environment, Invertebrates
Advancing Migratory Bird Conservation and Management by Using Radar: An Interagency Collaboration Ruth, J., Barrow, W., Sojda,R., Dawson, D., Diehl, R., Manville, A., Green, M., Krueper, D., Johnston, S. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Human Dimensions
Aggregation and Feeding Behaviour of Pouting (Trisopterus luscus) at Wind Turbines in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Reubens, J., Degraer, S., Vincx, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
An indicator for assessing the status of marine-bird habitats affected by multiple human activities: A novel statistical approach Mercker, M., Dierschke, V., Camphuysen, K., Kreutle, A., Markones, N., Vanermen, N., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
An integrated conceptual model to characterize the effects of offshore wind farms on ecosystem services Baulaz, Y., Mouchet, M., Niquil, N., Ben Rais Lasram, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
An Integrated Visual Impact Assessment Model for Offshore Windfarm Development Depellegrin, D., Blažauskas, N., Egarter-Vigl, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
Application of Monte Carlo and Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Processes for ranking floating wind farm locations Díaz, H., Teixeira, A., Soares, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Birds, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism
Artificial Reef Effect in Relation to Offshore Renewable Energy Conversion: State of the Art Langhamer, O. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment
Aspects of Offshore Renewable Energy and the Alterations of Marine Habitats Wilhelmsson, D. Thesis Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Assessing larval connectivity for marine spatial planning in the Adriatic Bray, L., Kassis, D., Hall-Spencer, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Assessing Potential Impacts of Offshore Wind Facilities on Regional Sea Scallop Laval and Early Juvenile Transports Chen, C., Zhao, L., He, P., Beardsley, R., Stokesbury, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates
Assessing the Impact of Windfarms in Subtidal, Exposed Marine Areas Dahlgren, T., Schläppy, M., Saskov, A., Andersson, M., Rzhanov, Y., Fer, I. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Ecosystem Processes
Assessing Vulnerability of Marine Bird Populations to Offshore Wind Farms Furness, R., Wade, H., Masden, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds
Assessment of system effects of large-scale implementation of offshore wind in the southern North Sea Boon, A., Caires, S., Wijnant, I., Verzijlbergh, R., Zijl, M., Schouten, J., Muis, S., van Kessel, T., van Duren, L., van Kooten, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment
Assessment of the Effects of Offshore Wind in Birds Percival, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Assessment of the Effects of the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) for Harbour Porpoise (comparison T0 and T1) Scheidat, M., Aarts, G., Bakker, A., Brasseur, S., Carstensen, J., van Leeuwen, P., Leopold, M., van Polanen Petel, T., Reijnders, P., Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Verdaat, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-H: Benthic Monitoring Plan Morandi, A., Berkman, S., Zottoli, J., DiPreta, G., Davies, S., Rowe, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-J: Essential Fish Habitat Assessment Environmental Design & Research, Landscape Architecture, Engineering, & Environmental Services, D.P.C. (EDR) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish
Automatic Segregation of Pelagic Habitats Plonus, R-M., Vogl, S., Floeter, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Avian Issues for Offshore Wind Development Allison, T., Jedrey, E., Perkins, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Bat activity during autumn relates to atmospheric conditions: implications for coastal wind energy development Smith, A., McWilliams, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats
Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Post-Construction Monitoring Year 2 (2021): Benthic Grab Survey Report Markham, C., Hubble, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Benthic and Fish Aggregation Inside an Offshore Wind Farm: Which Effects on the Trophic Web Functioning? Raoux, A., Tecchio, S., Pezy, J., Lassalle, G., Degraer, S., Wilhelmsson, D., Cachera, M., Ernande, B., Guen, C., Haraldsson, M., Grangeré, K., Le Loc'h, F., Dauvin, J., Niquil, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates
Benthic biodiversity on old platforms, young wind farms, and rocky reefs Coolen, J., van der Weide, B., Cuperus, J., Blomberg, M., Van Moorsel, G., Faasse, M., Bos, O., Degraer, S., Lindeboom, H., Norkko, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Benthic Communities at Horns Rev Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm: Final Report Vattenfall Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Benthic Monitoring During Wind Turbine Installation and Operation at the Block Island Wind Farm, Rhode Island – Year 2 Bartley, M., English, P., King, J., Khan, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Benthic production and energy export from man-made structures to softbottoms: does it matter? Dannheim, J., Birchenough, S., Beermann, J., Garcia, C., Coolen, J., De Mesel, I., Degraer, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Benthos Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Degraer, S., Hutchison, Z., LoBue, C., Williams, K., Gulka, J., Jenkins, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Biology and Video Surveys of North Hoyle Wind Turbines 11th-13th August 2004 Bunker, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Bird Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Cook, A., Williams, K., Jenkins, E., Gulka, J., Liner, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds
Birds and Offshore Wind Farms: A Hot Topic in Marine Ecology Exo, K., Hüppop, O., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Burbo Offshore Wind Farm Volume 2: ES Biological Environment The University of Liverpool Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Invertebrates, Fish
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